Curcuma
longa Linn.
· A genus of about 70 species of rhizomatous
herbs distributed in India, Siam, Malay Archipelago and N. Australia. About 30
species occur in India of which a few are of economic importance.
· A genus of rhizomatous herbs distributed
mainly in the Indo Malaysian region. About 18 species occur in India of which a
few are important spice plants including the Turmeric and Zedoary.
· The plant is a native of Southern Asia
(probably India) and is cultivated extensively throughout the warmer parts of
the world. It is grown on a large scale in India, China and East Indies. It is
cultivated in almost all the States in India, particularly in Madras, Bengal
and Bombay. . The main regions of cultivation in Madras are Guntur, Cuddapah,
Krishna, Kerala . In Maharashtra , the chief area of cultivation being Satara
district.
· There are several varieties of turmeric
distinguished by the names of localities in which they are grown. References
are found to two cultivated varieties in the reports of various States, but as
differential local names are applied it is difficult to say whether the same
two varieties are meant in every case. Two varieties are cultivated in Maharashtra one giving a hard and bright
coloured rhizome, and the other, a somewhat softer, larger and a lighter
coloured rhizome. The former is more commonly employed in dyeing and the latter
as a condiment (Ambekar, Bull. Dept. Agric., Bombay,No.146, 1927,
85). The two varieties cultivated in Assam and Bengal are Deshi and Patani
(Patni in Bengal), the latter having a better colour and flavour (Leafl.
Dep. Agric., Assam,No.17, 1939). China nadan and Perum nadan are grown in
Bhavani and Erode Talukas of Tamil Nadu State, the former being more
extensively cultivated because it grows more vigorously and its rhizome has a
sweeter aroma (Rajaratnam, Madras agric. J.,1923, 11, 42). Turmeric cultivated
in the hills is reported to be a better quality than that raised in the plains.
It is stated that the same variety when grown in the plains and on the hills
shows distinct differences in quality and yield (Narasimham, Madras agric. J.,1931,
19, 256). Chennai turmeric is highly esteemed in the market.
· A perennial herb, 2-3 ft. high with a short
stem and tuffted leaves; the rhizomes, which are short and thick, constitute
the turmeric of commerce. Turmeric is used both as a colouring material and as
a condiment. The characteristic yellow matter, distributed throughout the
plant, is especially concentrated in the rhizomes.
· In rare cases, however, as many as a dozen
roots may form tubers in a single plant. The tubers are of varied shapes and
sizes, the common ones being almond-shaped, 1-6cm x 0.5-2.5cm; and are rich in
starch. The production of these tubers was found to be conditioned by varietal
differences, soil factors and agronomic practices. Also it was found that when
finger rhizomes were used as seed material, there was a significantly higher
production of root tubers. Although histologically these tubers are not
pathological, their formation has an adverse effect on the yield of rhizomes
(Reddy & Sarma, Andhra Agric J, 1957, 4, 96; Sarma &
Ramesam, ibid, 1958, 5, 216).
· The crop requires a hot and moist climate,
a liberal water supply and a well-drained soil. It thrives on any soil-loamy or
alluvial-but the soil should be loose and friable. Gravelly clayey and stony
soils are unsuitable for the development of rhizomes. In tracts of heavy
rainfall, as in the west coast, it is grown as a rainfed crop. In other areas,
it is cultivated under flow or filt irrigation. Turmeric can be successfully
grown in paddy fields on raised beds beyond the reach of stagnant water. It is
usually rotated with Eleusine coracana Gaertn. (ragi), Oryza sativa
Linn. (paddy), Saacharum officinarum Linn (sugarcane) and other crops.
It is rarely cultivated as a pure crop; it is usually grown mixed with castor,
maize, ragi, onions, brinjal, tomato, etc. Short duration catch crops like
French beans (Phaseolus vulgarisLinn.) are sometimes raised in turmeric
fields in Ceylon (Paul & Fernado, Trop. Agriculturist,1941, 97,
10).
· The field should be well prepared by
ploughing and turning over to a depth of about one foot and liberally manured
with farm yard and green manures. Sometimes tank silt is applied or cattle and
sheep penned on the fields. Potash and organic manures are beneficial (Rao, Madras
Agric. J.,1949, 36, 323; Nair, Allahabad Fmr,1946, 20,
146). After the manure is spread and the field is ploughed 3-4 times till a
good tilth is obtained, ridges are made, 9-10 in. high and 18-20 in. broad with
channels between rows for irrigation. Sets or fingers of the previous crop with
1 or 2 buds are planted 3 in. deep at distance of 12-15 inches in April-August
at the rate of 1,500-1,800 lb. per acre (Narasimham, loc. cit.; Lakshmanan,
Madras Agric. J.,1949, 36, 267). Field experiments in Sri Lanka have shown
that plants spaced 6 in. x 6 in. yield significantly more of rhizomes than
plants spaced 12 in. x 12 in. or more. The plants drive well in partially
shaded areas, but shade adversely affects the yield (Paul & Fernando, Trop.
Agriculturist, 1944, 100, 9). Weeding and hoeing are necessary at
intervals. The crop is ready for harvesting in about 9-10 months when the lower
leaves turn yellow. The rhizomes are carefully dug up with hand picks. The
yield is very variable, ranging from 12,000 to 22,000 lb. of green or raw
tumeric per acre, but yields as high as 25,000 lb. per acre have been recorded
(Madras Agric. J.,1937, 25, 25.).
· Curing and preparation for the market: The
rhizomes, which are brownish yellow in colour, consist of a central bulbous
portion bearing a number of finger-like lateral offshoots. The bulbous and
finer-shaped parts are separated, and the long fingers which generally command
a high price in the market, are broken into convenient bits. They are freed
from adhering dirt and fibrous roots and subjected to a process of curing and
polishing. The curing consists in cooking and rhizomes in water until they
become soft. A few leaves of turmeric are usually added to the water in the
cooking vessel. Addition of a little cowdung is said to intensify the colour of
the product. The cooking should be thorough as otherwise, the product is liable
to insect attack. The duration of cooking varies in different localities from
about 30 min. to 6 hrs. (Ramanna, Mysore Agric. J.,1935, 15,
136). The cooked rhizomes are allowed to cool gradually, and spread out in the
open to dry with intermittent turning over to ensure uniformity in drying. The
dried rhizomes are either rubbed on a rough surface or are trampled upon to
remove the outer skin and to give them an attractive colour and polish.
· Various improvements in the cooking vessels
and heating furnaces, and in the method of polishing the product, have been
suggested. The Sindwahe furnace used in Kurnool distict for making jaggery has
been employed for cooking the rhizomes, using dried leaves of turmeric as fuel
(Madras Agric. J.,1938, 26, 444). A polishing drum (2 ft. long x 3 ft.
diam.), of expanded metal, horizontally mounted and rotated by a handle at 30 r.p.m.
has been designed by the Madras Agricultural Department. The expanded metal is
covered on the outside with a light wrapping of woven wire to prevent the small
pieces from falling through. It can take in a charge of 70 lb. of turmeric, and
the polishing is complete in 7 minutes (Madras Agric. J.,1938, 26,
79). Sprinkling of water during the polishing is said to improve the colour
(Karunaratne, Trop. Agriculturist, 1937, 89, 350). The yellow
dust obtained during polishing is used as manure for paddy fields.
The outturn of the dried product varies
with the quality and ripeness of the raw tubers and ranges from 17 to 25% of
the fresh material (Yegna Narayan Aiyer, 285). Cured and finished turmeric is
brittle; it has a shining yellow colour on which its market value depends In
some areas a special treatment is given to improve the appearance of the
product. This consists in soaking the material for 10 min. in an aqueous
extract of tamarind to which has been added a paste of turmeric. In Mysore, The
poorly developed red branches of the rhizomes of one variety are separated, cut
into pieces and utilized, without curing, for preparing Kumkum.
· Area And Production : Turmeric is one of
the five major spices of India and ranks high in its export earnings, being
next only to black pepper and cardamom. It is cultivated throughout the length
and breadth of the country. The area and production of turmeric has gone up and
down in different years. As per official statistics, c 3.5 lakh tonnes of
turmeric were produced from an area of c 1.17 lakh hectare in 1991-92. India
has a prime position in the world production of turmeric. It is estimated that
80 per cent of the world production is coming from India, although nearly 95%
is consumed within the country. About 18 states in India cultivate turmeric.
However, turmeric cultivation is largely confined to South and Eastern India.
It is grown as a rainfed and irrigated crop in fourteen states of the country.
Of these, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Karnataka and West Bengal
contributed c 90% of the production. As an irrigated crop it is grown in Andhra
Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. It is grown on a large scale in Andhra Pradesh (
accounting for c 42% of the production) and in Tamil Nadu (c 11%) ; Orissa,
Karnataka, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Bihar, Kerala and Assam are the other
states growing the crop. It is grown to a small extent in the lower and mid-
hills altitudes in Meghalaya and Himachal Pradesh.
· In Andhra Pradesh, turmeric is cultivated
mainly in five regions, viz. Nizamabad, Karimnagar, Guntur, Cuddapah an
Adilabad districts with Nizamabad contributing to nearly 20% of the state
produce. In 1991-92, Andhra Pradesh was the largest producer of turmeric
followed by Orissa (George, Indian Spices, 1993,30 (2-3), 22;
Venkataraman in Nair et al, 5; George & Velappan in Nair et al, 207;
Randhawa, et al, J Res, Ludhiana, 1973, 10, 45; Sriramarao, in
Nair et al, 213).
· Breeding And Varieties : One of the most important problems facing
the turmeric crop is its duration of 7 to 9 months. Therefore, the main
objectives of breeding work on turmeric are (1) evolving short duration
varieties; (2) breeding soft-rot resitant varieties; (3) breeding varieties
with high yield, high oil and curcumin content; (4) to overcome the reasons for
sterility; and (5) to collect wild forms for breeding work.
· An All-India survey conducted by Central
Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI) Kasaragod, Kerala in collaboration
with National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR), New Delhi and Himachal
Pradesh Agriculture University has enabled to collect c 120 accessions of
turmeric. They are being multiplied and preliminary studies have revealed that
there is a wide variability for quality and yield characters. Hybridization
with C. aromatica should be carried out to obtain types possessing high
yield, and high curcumin and oil contents (Venkataraman in Nair et al, 5; Nair
et al, 15).
· Genetic variability and correlation studies
were conducted on ten genotypes of turmeric to assess the genetic parameters
and degree of mutual association in respect of yield and yield determining
characters. The characters such as
yield of cured turmeric, number of primary fingers and yield of
secondary fingers showed a good amount of variability, high magnitude of
heritability and appreciable expected genetic advance. The yield of cured
turmeric was found to be significantly correlated with yield of secondary
fingers. The significant relations of quantitative characters and with those of
primary fingers of secondary fingers with each other suggested the scope for
obtaining a good response to selection through direct as well as indirect
selection. In another study on 14 cultivars of turmeric, highly significant
differences among the genotypes, for characters like yield/plant, fingers/plant
and weight of single finger, were observed. Yield/plant and finger/plant had
high genotypic coefficient variation coupled with high value of genetic advance
and moderately high heritabilities. It indicates that selection may effectively
be based on these characters and then phenotypic expression would be a good
indicator of genotypic potentiality (Jalgaokar et al, Indian Cocoa, Arecanut
Spices J, 1990-91, 14, 20; Nandi, Indian J Agric Sci, 1991, 61,
941).
· Eight turmeric varieties belonging to C.
longa and C. aromatica were crossed. Seed setting was observed in
eight of the eleven crosses tried and in the variety `Nandyal' by open
pollination. The germination of these seeds were ranged from c. 17 to 100% per
cent and the seedlings only produced tubers during the first year of growth
(Nazeem & Menon, S Indian Hort, 1994, 42, 161).
· For multiplication of promising clones and
for breeding resistance to major diseases, tissue culture technique was tried
on clone `15B'. As many as 25 shoots per explant were obtained at a rate much
faster than normal seed propagation (Shetty et al, in Nair et al 39).
· Climate & Soil : Turmeric is
grown generally as an annual crop. It requires a warm and humid climate. It is
cultivable from sea- level up to 1200 m. Turmeric thrives in well-drained,
fertile, sandy and clayey, black red or alluvial loams, rich in humus and
uniform in texture and easily workable. It cannot stand water-stagnation or
alkalinity. On heavy soils, it can be grown on raised beds [Venkateswaran, 207;
Handbook of Agriculture, 1980, 1184; Nair, in Nair et al, 63; Adhate, Farmer,
1958, 9 (12), 21].
· Preparation of land:- The land is deeply
dug or ploughed 4-6 times to bring the soil to a fine tilth. With the last
ploughing, manure is incorporated. Where the soil is porous, it is divided into
beds of 1-2m width and convenient length with a spacing of 30cm between the
beds for drainage channels. In case of the irrigated crop and where the soil is
non-porous, ridges and furrows are prepared and the rhizomes are planted in
pits on shallow beds on the tops of ridges or on both the sides of the ridges.
Mulching the bed with green leaves is an important practice beneficial to the
crop when planting is done on raised beds. Two or three mulchings are given,
the first immediately after planting and the second and third at intervals of
40-50 days (Handbook of Agriculture, 1980, 1185; Venkateswaran, 207).
· Seeds and Sowings: Turmeric can be propagated
through seeds and rhizomes, but it is generally done through rhizomes as using
seeds is not economical in commercial cultivation. Mother rhizomes as well as
fingers are used as planting materials. Studies conducted to determine the most
suitable planting material have revealed that generally mother rhizome is the
most suitable planting material. However, in case of var. `Tekurpeta'
transplanting of 30 day old sprouts were equally productive. In case of vareity
- `Lakadong', half mother rhizome (18-20 g) showed remarkable tolerance against
Taphrina leaf spot disease, although the yield was low as compared to full
mother rhizome. In another trial, however, half mother rhizomes (35-44g), were
found the best planting material in terms of fresh rhizome yield, cured produce
yield and curcumin content. The mother rhizome is cut into two, each having at
least one sound bud; fingers cut into 4-5cm long pieces can also be used as
planting material [Nair in Nair et al, 65; Nair et al, 62; Govind & Gupta, New
Bot, 1989, 16 (1-4), 65; Umrani et al in Nair et al, 79; Singh &
Kar, Indian Cocoa, Arecanut Spices J, 1991, 14, 153; Philip, ibid,
1983, 7, 8; Handbook of Agric, 1980, 1185].
· Soaking of rhizomes, of cultivar `Co 1' and
`BSR 1' , in 0.2 per cent potassium nitrate recorded early germination,
enhanced sprouting percentage and seedling vigour. Finger rhizomes were found
early sprouting than mother rhizome (Balashanmugam & Vanangamudi, Madras
Agric J, 1992, 79, 209; Balashanmugam et al, S Indian Hort,
1993, 41, 152).
· The conventional method of propagation has
a number of drawbacks, viz. c. 2 months dormancy period of rhizomes, only 5-6
plants can be obtained from each rhizome; and a sizeable percentage of the
produce has to be put aside as seed material. To overcome these problems tissue
culture technique was tried for propagation of some high yielding cultivars -
`Duggirala', `Tekurpeta', `BSR-1', and `Co. 1', giving high success percentagee
(Nadgauda et al, Indian J Exp Biol, 1978, 16, 120; Keshavachandran
& Khader, S Indian Hort, 1989, 37, 101).
· The time of planting of turmeric varies
with the cultivar as well as the agroclimatic condition of the area. The
turmeric is generally planted between mid-April and August. The short-duration
varieties are planted in the second fortnight of May, the medium duration ones
in the first-fortnight of June and the long durations between 15th June and
15th July. Besides, when fingers are used as seed, planting should be done by
first-fortnight of July; but with cut mother rhizomes, planting as late as
first week of August does not affect the yield. Studies conducted at Tamil Nadu
revealed that turmeric planted at 1st June gave highest yield of 40,000 kg/ha.
In general yield decreased with late planting. However, in Rewa, Madhya
Pradesh, planting on 16th May gave best yield from the mother rhizome [Nair in
Nair et al, 65; Umrani et al in Nair et al, 79; Handbook of Agriculture,
1980, 1185; Sarma & Murthi, Andhra Agric J, 1965, 12 (3), 84;
Balashanmugam et al, Indian Cocoa, Arecanut Spices J, 1989, 12,
124; Barholi et al, Gujrat Agric Univ Res J, 1992, 17, 172].
· The optimum spacing for sowing turmeric is
30-35cm x 20cm for beds and 45-60cm x 25-30cm for ridges and furrows. Rich
black loam soils require wider spacing than light soils. A seed rate of
2000-2500 kg/ha may be adopted depending on the spacing given. In mixed
cropping the seed-rate is much less; in fruit gardens it may be as low as
400-500 kg/ha. The seed material is dipped in Aggalol (0.3%) soln for 30
minutes and then air-dried. The treated material is dibbled behind country
ploughs and then covered [Rao, Indian Spices, 1975, 12 (2), 2;
Rajput et al in Nair et al, 83; Ramachandran & Muthuswami, S. Indian Hort,
1984, 32, 143; Handbook of Agriculture, 1980, 1185; Nair et al,
62; Venkateswaran, 208).
· Manures & Fertilizers: Turmeric needs
heavy manuring; light soils are more heavily manured than heavy soils. Usually
40-50 tonnes of Farm Yard Manure (FYM) is applied as a basal dressing. About
1200-1800 kg of groundnut cake is applied in 2 split doses, the first after
planting and the remaining a month and half later. Alternatively NPK
fertilizers at 30:30:60 kg/ha may be applied in split doses of 30 and 60 days
after planting. Tank silt or cattle or sheep penving is also done to supply the
bulky organic manure. In Tamil Nadu, higher rate of NPK 187.5:62.5:125 k/ha
after a basal dressing of 25kg of FYM gave the best results with respect to
growth, yield and quality of turmeric. However, studies have shown that K at 90
kg K2O/ha in four splits (basal, 60, 90 and 120 day after planting)
recorded the highest yield. Application of 90 kg N and 60 kg P2O5
/ha was found optimal for turmeric var Co.1 in Tamil Nadu. In Orissa, in
addition to 10-15 tonnes/ha FYM, a fertilizer dose of 90:60:60 kg/ha of NPK was
found remunerative. In Simla hills, due to scarcity of FYM in the hilly
regions, a fertilizer requirement of 150:50:50 kg/ha NPK proved to be the best
and significantly increased the yield of the crop. After every manuring
operation, the plants are earthed up. It was observed in a study on nutrient
removal by turmeric, that in Kerala condition, the crop was mainly potassium
and nitrogen-exhausting, while it removed Mg and P to only a small
extent.However,application of 160 kg N/ha gave the maximum yield of fresh
rhizome with variety `Sugandham'under terrace cultivation in Mizoram conditions
[Venkateswaran, 208; Handbook of Agriculture, 1185; Rao, Indian
Spices, 1975, 12 (2), 2; Nair et al, 62; Purseglove et al, II, 539; Hort
Abstr, 1986, 56, 4478, 4479; Balashanmugam & Subramanian, S
Indian Hort, 1991, 39, 139; Muthuvel et al, ibid, 1989, 37,
61; Sahu & Mitra, Fertil News, 1992, 37 (10), 59; Randhawa et
al, J Res, Ludhiana, 1973, 10, 45; Pandey, Indian Cocoa,
Arecanut Spices J, 1992, 16 (1), 14; Nagarajan & Pillai, Madras
Agric J, 1979, 66, 56].
· Irrigation: In heavy rainfall tracts of the
West Coast, turmeric is grown as a rain-fed crop and in other areas as an
irrigated crop. During summer, irrigation at 5 day intervals is recommended in
case of red loam and at 7-9 days in the case of black loams. However, in clayey
soils, 15-20 irrigations and in sandy soils c. 40 irrigations are required.
During the period of rhizome development and maturity, frequent irrigations are
necessary. In a study to determine water- production function for turmeric in
Andhra Pradesh, it was concluded that 2.0 ha-m water is needed for potential
rhizome production and 1.9919 ha-m for maximum net returns under the prevailing
prices of water and rhizome yield [Nair et al, 62; Handbook of Agriculture,
1980, 1184; Rao, Indian Spices, 1975, 12 (2), 2; Rao et al, Indian
J Agric Sci, 1992, 62, 405].
· Interculture: Mulching is found to be
essential for turmeric as it checks weed growth, enhancs the germination
percentage and also conserves soil moisture for the crop. Experiments conducted
at Pottangi, Orissa with different mulch materials have shown that highest
return per rupee (Rs 2.16) was relised by first mulching with dry forest leaves
at planting and sowing french bean as intercrop at 45 days of planting instead
of 2nd and 3rd mulches. Mulching with dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata Pers.)
and sunnhemp (Crotalaria juncea L.) was found to be the best for
turmeric crop. It may be done twice. Three to four hoeings, the first one month
after planting, followed by weeding are the recommended interculture practices.
In all two weeding in a cropping season may be practiced or alternatively application
of herbicide plus one hand weeding is recommended to control the growth of
weeds such as grasses and some broad-leaf plants. Fluchloralin (Basalin) (2,000
ml/ha) is recommended and if soil is very cleyey, the dose can be increased by
1000 ml. The ideal thing to do is spray the chemical immediately after planting
the rhizomes, followed by irrigation (Mohanty et al, Indian Cocoa, Arecanut
Spices J, 1991, 14 (3), 97; 1991, 15 (1), 8; Venkateswaran,
208; Nair et al, 62; Hort Abstr, 1986, 56, 2726; Frms' J,
1989, 9 (1), 55).
· Germination and growth: Germination is generally completed in 2-4
weeks. For breaking dormancy of seed material, seeds are soaked in 50%
sulphuric acid for 10min. and then thoroughly washed daily for 15-17 days. As a
result, 90% germination was achieved. Flowering occurs after c. 5 months and
rhizomes are then begining to form. Active rhizome development continues till
the crop is ready for lifting in~7-9 months, when the lower leaves turn yellow
(Purseglove et al, II, 539; Curr Sci, 1954, 23, 207).
· Rotations and mixtures: Turmeric can be
grown as an intercrop with many other crops because it comes up well in partial
shade conditions, although thick shade affects the yield adversely. Therefore,
it is recomended as an intercrop in coconut and arecanut gardens. It can also
be gorwn as a mixed crop with arhar or sunhemp, chillies, colocasias, onion,
brinjal and cerelas like - maize and ragi. In Deecan, turmeric is grown with
many vegetables but not as a proper mixture. Turmeric, french beans and fodder
maize are popular mixtures. French beans are planted on the crest of the ridge
and maize in the furrows, and turmeric in the middle height of the ridge. This
allows the farmer to reap the materials, vegetable or fodder in 2-2½ months, particularly
when there is scarcity of both. The nutritional and space requirement of
turmeric are very little in the begining and later only turmeric is left to
grow in the field. Studies conducted in Tamil Nadu has revealed that turmeric
grown on broad flattened ridges in two rows with two rows with two rows of
onion as intercrop gave the maximum rhizome yield (c 36,500 kg/ha). The
economics of double intercroping was studies at Coimbatore and it was found
that turmeric as the main crop followed by fenugreek as the first intercrop and
onion as the second intercrop gave the best results, followed by turmeric +
beans + beetroot [Nair et al, 62; Satheesan & Ramadasan, in Nair et al, 69;
Adhate, Farmer, 1958, 9 (12), 21; Balashanmugam & Vedamuthu, S
Indian Hort, 1989, 37, 189; Hort Abstr, 1986, 56,
4477].
· In Wynaad, turmeric is grown as an
intercrop in coffee plantations, particularly in its early years of growth. In
West Bengal, it is grown with mango, jack-fruit and litchi. In the Kurseong
Forest Division of West Bengal, trials with turmeric as an intercrop proved
successful, giving additional income as well as growth improvement of the
forest crops in the interplanted area. In Madras, turmeric is interplanted in
teak planatation. In an intercropping system of mulbery, turmeric and pea, the
leaf yield of mulbery increased by 16.93% alongwith 10.98% improvement in
rhizome yield. The value of land-equivalent ratio (4.21) indicated advanatge in
yield and raises the possibility of increasing profits up to 2.69 times by
intercropping without hampering the leaf yield of mulbery [Nair, Indian
Coffee, 1991, 55 (8), 9; Lahiri, Indian For, 1972, 98,
109; Venkataramany, ibid, 1956, 82, 225; Kumar et al, Indian
Farming, 1993, 43 (2), 22; Tikader et al, Indian J Agric Sci,
1992, 62, 523].
· Rotation of turmeric with vegetables and
cereals is also practiced in many places. In wetlands, turmeric is rotated with
paddy, sugarcane, banana, etc once in 3-4 years. In garden lands, it is gorwn
in rotation with chilli, sugarcane, onion, garlic, yam, elephant's foot, other
vegetables, pulses, ragi or maize. In Gujarat, it is cultivated as a crop
subsidiary to ginger and in other areas with chilli and quick-growing
vegetables. Often castor and pigeon pea are planted on borders to provide shade
to the turmeric crop (Handbook of Agriculture, 1980, 1184-1185;
Venkateswaran, 207).
· Turmeric
genotypes PCT-13 and 14 produced significantly higher average fresh rhizomes
yields and cured yields than
all other cultures. PCT-8 (Suvarna) recorded high curcumin content and high curing percentage. The rhizomes of all the short duration cultures were found to
be free from rhizome rot disease.
Among all the short duration cultures studied, the genotypes PCT-13 and
14 were found to be suitable for cultivation
in Northern Telangana zone. (Reddy,
M.L.N., Andhra Agricultural Journal, 45(3&4), 144, 1998)
In a laboratory experiment dry rhizomes of 23 turmeric cultivars were
subjected to abrasion with ten abrasive tools. The colour of these abrasions
was compared with standard colour chart. The colours developed during curcumin
analysis by ASTA method were extrapolated with colour chart. Based upon these
comparisons the curcumin content in percent was fixed. Farmers were given
macrophoto print of these colours with corresponding curcumin contents. Among
the abrasive material, cloth based fine grade emery paper proved to be the best
followed by medium and coarse paper. Farmers can make abrasions on processed
dry rhizomes with these emery papers and directly read the curcumin content by
reference to the colour chart. (Balashanmugam, P.V, Golden Jubilee National
Symposium on Spices, Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Biodiversity, Conservation and Utilisation, Calicut, India,
12, 10).
Distribution, production and economics,
uses, climate and land requirement, varieties, cultivation methods and time,
diseases and pests, storage and curing of Curcuma longa have been
described. (Upadhyay, D.C., Spices India, 9(5), 12, 1996).
Climate, soil and manure required for the cultivation of turmeric (Curcuma longa), its improved varieties, mulching, insects and pests, production and curing have been described. (Dhote, D.N. Spice India, 11(5),).
5. Diseases
& Pests
· Turmeric suffers from foliar and rhizome
diseases. Among the foliar diseases, the most common are the leaf blotch and
the leaf spots.
· The leaf blotch of turmeric caused by
Taphrina maculans Butler is commonly prevalent in the country. It is characterized
by the appearance of several brownish yellow spots on both the surfaces of
leaves. The leaves get distorted and become yellow very soon. The foliar
destruction due to excessive spotting may cause heavy reduction in yield. It
can be controlled by the use of fungicides like Bordeaux mixture, aureofungin,
zineb, dithane, etc. Some of the cultivars are resistant (Joshi & Sharma,
in Nair et al, 104, Handbook of Agriculture, 1980, 415).
· Leaf spot or anthracnose, caused by Colletotrichum
capsici (Syd.) Butler & Bisby is reported to be severe in Tamil Nadu
and Andhra Pradesh. Severely affected crop gives significantly low yields. The
disease can effectively checked by spraying Bordeaux mixture and selecting
disease - free seed material. In Andhra Pradesh, four sprayings with Flit 406
or dithane at monthly intervals from September to December were found adequate
for checking the infection, besides giving higher yields. Varieties `China' and
Jaweli' were found to be resistant to this disease. Varietal evaluation against
the disease under hill conditions has shown that out of 6 varieties screened,
TC3 (PTS-38) was found less susceptible (Joshi & Sharma, in Nair et al,
104; Handbook of Agricture, 1980, 415; Nair & Ramakrishnan, Curr
Sci, 1973, 42, 549; Dakshinamurti et al, Andhra Agric J,
1966, 13, 69; Kandaswamy, Madras Agric J, 1958, 45, 55;
Upadhyay & Pavgi, Indian Phytopath, 1967, 20, 29; Prakasam et
al, S Indian Hort, 1991, 39, 166).
· Another leaf spot caused by Phaeodactylium
alpinae (Sawada) M.B. Ellis has been reported from Sikkim causing extensive
damage to turmeric crop (Shrivastava & Verma, Curr Sci, 1987, 56,
673).
· Other foliar diseases include leaf blight
caused by Corticium sasakii (. Matsumoto) reported from Assam, and leaf
spot by Phyllosticta zingiberi (
Saikia & Roy, Indian Phytopath, 1975, 28, 519; Summanwar
& Bhide, J Indian Bot Soc, 1961, 41, 313).
· Rhizome diseases mainly include rhizome rot
and storage rot of turmeric. Rhizome rot caused by Pythium graminicolum
( L.S. Subram.) has been recorded from Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu and that
by P. myriotylum Drechsl. from Assam. The infected plants first show
progressive drying up of leaves, then spots on aerial shoots and then the roots
and rhizomes become discoloured and soft and begin to rot. In cases of severe
infection, the yield is considerably reduced. Addition of urea (1%) to the soil
checks the fungus. Complete eradication of infected plants is also an effective
control measure. Raising the level of the beds, sowing disease-free seed,
spraying Bordeaux mixture or using a rhizome dip in Ridomil are other control
measures. Detailed studies on rhizome rot conducted in Nizamabad District,
Andhra Pradesh revealed the complex nature of the disease. Pythium sp.,
Fusarium sp. and fly maggot were found associated with the complex. Based
on the studies, following practices were suggested to minimise the disease
occurrence: 1) discourage the cultivation of highly susceptible varieties like
`Armoor' in disease prone areas; 2) maize as an intercrop be sown separately in
rows after every 2 rows of the turmeric; 3) adopt spacing of 30x15 cm for
turmeric and 60x30 cm for maize; 4) use healthy rhizome seeds; 5) provide
adequate draniage; 6) on the appearence of disease symptoms, spray fungicide
carbendazim and drench the soil with Bordeaux mixture (1%) (Joshi & Sharma
in Nair et al, 104; Rathaiah, Indian Phytopath, 1982, 35, 415,
297; Handbook of Agriculture, 1980, 415; Shankariah et al, Indian
Cocoa, Arecanut Spices J, 1991, 14, 104).
· Storage disease of rhizome caused by Sclerotium
rolfsii Sacc. is rampant in Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh, affecting
the heart of the mother rhizome. It results in low germination, poor vigour and
low yield of turmeric. Treating the seed rhizomes with Ceresan Wet soon after
harvest, reduces the incidence of disease (Saikia & Roy, Indian
Phytopath, 1975, 28, 519; Reddy & Rao, ibid, 1973, 26,
24).
· Rhizomes stored for seed purposes were
found infected by several fungi including species of Aspergillus, Fusarium,
Cladosporium, Fusarium, Macrophomina, Pythium, Rhizoctonia, Sclerotium,
etc. Such storage rot, particularly that caused by A..flavus Link can be
successfully prevented and controlled by pre- and post-inoculation treatment
with bavistin and benomyl [Sharma & Roy, Curr Sci, 1984, 53, 869; Kumar
& Roy, Indian J Agric Sci, 1990, 60, 189; Sharma & Roy,
Pesticides, 1984, 18 (11), 26].
· Brown rot of rhizomes caused by Pratylenchus
and Fusarium complex has also been reported (Joshi & Sharma in Nair
et al, 104).
· Of the insect pests of turmeric, the shoot
borer or tissue borer - Dichocrocis puncteferalis Guenno is reported to cause
the maximum damage producing `dead heart' symptoms. It bores into the central
shoot, as a result of which the plant dries up. Removal and destruction of the
affected shoots, and destruction of larvae at the initial stages of infection
help to contain the pest. Spraying with 0.04% endosulfan or 0.1% carboryl also
check the attack (Nair in Nair et al, 101; Handbook of Agriculture,
1980, 542).
· Many sucking insects and defoliators have
been recorded on turmeric. The hard scale, Aspidiotus hartii Cockerell
and A. curcumae Gr. infests fresh rhizome and sucks the sap resulting in
desiccation of the stored turmeric. Selecting healthy seeds for planting or
drenching with 0.95% Lindane emulsion are used to control the pest. Another
pest infecting the fresh rhizomes is the rhizome fly, Calobata albimana Macq
reported from Andhra Pradesh. The tinged bug or the lace wing bug, Stephanitis
typicus Distant infests the leaves in colonies, sucking their sap and
causing their discolouration giving a sickly appearence to the plant. Dusting
with 5% BHC or 0.1% malathion is done for control. The thrips, Panchaetothrips
indicus Bagnall attacks the leaves which roll up, turn pale and gradually
dry up. Stegobium paniceum has ben reported as a pest of stored turmeric
from Rajasthan. Fumigation with a mixture of ethylene dibromide (EDB) and
carbon tetrachloride proved the most suitable control measure. Cigarette
bettle, Lasioderma serricorne Fab. is considered a major insect pest of
turmeric in storage and causes considerable loss to stored turmeric. In
tropical countries, the insect is abundant through out the year (Nair in Nair
et al, 101; Rao & Reddy, Indian Cocoa, Arecanut Spices J, 1990,
14, 67; Handbook of Agriculture, 1980, 543; Hort Abstr, 1987,
57, 577; 1960, 30, 2473; Purseglove et al, II, 541; Lakshmi et al, Andhra
Agric J, 1991, 38, 106).
· Of the defoliators, Udaspes foleus Cramer
is the turmeric skipper reported as a specific and serious pest. As a control
measure, hand- picking of caterpillars and pupae is recommended. Lema
lacodairei Baly and other Lema sp. are serious defoliators in
Orissa. Dusting 5% BHC is a suitable control. Other defoliators recorded on
turmeric include Pseudocophora sp. Colasposoma splendidum (F.), Ceratobasis
nair Locard, Cryptocephalus rajah (F.), etc (Nair in Nair et al, 101; Handbook
of Agriculture, 1980, 542).
· Some nematodes have also been recorded on
the plant viz., Meloidogyne incognita, the root-knot nematode,
Radopholus similis, the borrowing nematode and several others (Nair in Nair
et al, 101).
· Harvesting - The maturity of the
crop is indicated by complete drying up of the plant including the base of
stems. The crop is ready for harvest in c. 8 months after planting; the long
duration varieties take 8½-9 months. In Tamil Nadu, the crop is harvested in
January-March and in Andhra Pradesh in February-April. The dry leaves are cut
close to the ground. The land is irrigated, if necessary, and ploughed in
between the rows when planted on ridges. Otherwise the rhizomes are dug up with
a crow bar or pick-axe. The rhizomes are collected and cleaned of the adhering
earth and roots, and separated into rounds and fingers. A small portion of the
field may be left, to be harvested a month later, for seed (Umrani et al in
Nair et al, 90; Nair et al, 92; Venkateswaran, 209; Handbook of Agriculture,
1980, 1186).
· Yield: The yield of raw rhizomes in a pure
crop varies from 20- 22,000 kg/ha. It may go up to 30,000 kg/ha under
exceptionally favourable conditions like suitable cultivar, heavy manuring and
good irrigation. On an average, 20-25 percent of the raw rhizomes is obtained
as the cured product. In recent years, Tamil Nadu has made rapid progress in
increasing productivity per unit area and is now obtaining 30% higher yields
(~. 6000 kg/ha of cured rhizomes) than in Andhra Pradesh (~. 4600 kg/ha) and
100% or more higher than in other states except Karnataka which has recorded an
average of ~. 5500 kg/ha. Putting the crop under irrigation has been the main
contributing factor (Handbook of Agriculture, 1980, 1187; George &
Vellappan in Nair et al, 207; Reddy et al, Indian Cocoa, Arecanut Spices J,
1989, 13, 102).
· Storage: For seed purposes, the rhizomes
are heaped in shade and covered with turmeric leaves or the heap is plastered
over with earth mixed with cowdug; in some places it is dusted with ash and
sprinkled with water occasionally. The remaining produce is cured and stored in
large quantities at the assembling centres. Turmeric is generally stored in
air-tight underground pits lined and covered by rellu grass (Saccharum
spontaneum) or date mats, before the onset of monsoon; the pits are opened
after the rains. In Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and Orissa, turmeric is stored in
ordinary godowns. In Kerala, the problem of storage is comparatively less as
the major portion of the produce is exported immediately after the harvest. It
is reported that due to the high oil content of turmeric produced in Orissa,
storage in ordinary godowns does not pose any problem of storage pests.
Moreover, turmeric is stored here in the raw state. Some amount of the produce
is stored in godowns of State and Central Warehousing Corporations.
Prophylactic measures including fumigation are followed to protect the produce
from storage losses (Handbook of Agriculture, 1980, 1187; Lakshmanchar
in Nair et al, 242).
· In Indian systems of medicine, turmeric is
used to some extent as a stomachic tonic and blood purifier. It is also
prescribed as an antiperiodic alterative. Mixed with warm milk it is said to
beneficial in common cold. The juice of the fresh rhizome is used as an
antiparasitic for many skin affections. Externally, it is applied to indolent
ulcers, and a paste made from the powdered rhizome along with lime forms a
remedy for inflamed joints. A decoction of the rhizome is said to relieve the
pain of purulent ophthalmia. Oil of turmeric, distilled from the dried
rhizomes, has feeble antiseptic properties. It is an antacid and, in small
doses, acts as a carminative, stomachic, appetiser and tonic. In large doses,
(2-4ml of concentrated solution), however, it appears to act as an
antispasmodic inhibiting excessive peristaltic movements of the intestines
(Chopra et al., Indian J. Med. Res.,1941, 29, 769).
· Utilization: Turmeric (rhizomes or powder)
is an auspicious article in all religious observances in Hindu households. It
is a normal constituent of condiments, curry powders and prepared mustards. It
is used also for dyeing wool, silk and unmordanted cotton to which it imparts a
yellow shade in an acid bath. In spite of its poor light- fastness it is still
used for dyeing cotton, sometimes in combination with other natural dyes like
indigo and safflower to impart different shades. Turmeric was in use, until
recently. in England for dyeing wool and silk in the formation of olive browns
and other compound colours. It is used as a colouring matter in pharmacy, confectionery
and food- industry. Turmeric paper is an official reagent in the British
Pharmacopoeia for testing alkalinity. A diluted tincture of turmeric is
suitable for use as a fluorescence indicator even in brown and yellow solutions
(Chem. Abstr.,1938. 32, 6579).
· The colouring matter of turmeric can be
extracted from the powder either by direct solvent extraction or by extraction
with aqueous alkali and subsequent precipitation with acid (Chem. Abstr.,
1938, 326402; 1941, 35, 7656). Products containing the total active
constituents of turmeric and useful in the treatment of gall complaints have
been prepared from aqueous extracts of the rhizomes (Chem. Abstr., 1934,
28, 4179: 29, 5992; 1943, 37, 3230). Curcumin is used as
dye for silk, paper, wood and foodstuffs in China (Mayer & Cook, loc.
cit.).
· History And Origin :Turmeric was known in
India since ancient times. The origin of turmeric is believed to have been in
South-East Asia. Scientists believe C. longa has arisen by a process of
triphoidy, either from C. aromatica Salisb. or a form similar to it with
42 chromosomes. The cultivated species are said to have naturalized in some
areas of North-Eastern parts of India and the island of Java. Turmeric is
thought to have reached East Africa in the 8th century and West Africa in the
13th century. Thus the crop is distributed throughout the troipcal belt. But
its cultivation as a spice is largely confined to India, South-East Asia and
Indonesia (Nair, et al, 15; Purseglove et al, II, 533).
· Curing: The process of curing consists of
cooking the rhizomes in water until they become soft. Addition of a little
cowdung is beleived to intensify the colour, perhaps due to alkalinity. Being
unhygienic, it has been replaced by lime, sodium bicarbonate or sodium
carbonate at 0.05-0.1% concentrations. The cooking should be thorough, otherwise the product is liable to insect
attack. The duration of cooking varies in different localities from ~. 30 min
to 6 hrs. Studies have shown that curing of turmeric by sodium bicarbonate
method registered the highest recovery of processed rhizome than the
conventional cowdung method. Moreover, there was considerable savings in the
quantum of water and fuel required for curing while the quality of the finished
product remained unaffectd. The methods and equipment used for boiling vary
from tract to tract. Perforated troughs immersed in a boiling pan are used most
economically and efficiently as there is less wastage of fuel and time. Each
boiling takes about 30 minutes and 700 kg of turmeric can be boilded at a time.
A furnace designed for this method is used in Tamil Nadu; it uses dried leaves
of turmeric as fuel.
· The cooked rhizomes are allowed to cool
gradually and spread out in the open to sun dry for 10-15 days with in
termittent turning over to ensure uniformity in drying. Alternatively,
mechanical dryers are used, maintaining temperatures between 50 and 60-C. The
dried rhizomes are either rubbed on a rough surface or trampled upon to remove
the outer skin and then polished to give them an attractive colour and
appearence (Philip & Sethumadhavan in Nair et al, 198; Balashanmugam, S
Indian Hort, 1991, 39, 214; Mohideen et al, ibid, 1990, 38,
49; Natarajan & Lewis in Nair et al, 143).
· Polishing: In Tamil Nadu and Orissa,
polishing is done in a turmeric polisher consisting of a polishing drum of
expanded metal, horizentally mounted and rotated by a handle. The drum is
covered on the outside with a light wrapping of woven wire to prevent the small
pieces from falling through. It can take in a charge of 32 kg of turmeric and
the polishing is complete in 7 minutes.
· The polished product is subjected to
colouring by dry or wet method. In the dry method, chemicals - mainly lead
chromate (chemichrome) is dusted on the rhizomes and mixed well. But this is
discouraged due to injurious nature of the chemical dye and usually wet
colouring is preferred. In some areas a paste of turmeric added to an aqueous
extract of turmeric is used for soaking the rhizomes and then drying them. In
an improved method of colouring developed by the CFTRI, Mysore, the dried
rhizomes are taken in wicker basket which is shaken continously while a
prepared emulsion of castor seed paste, alum, sodium bisulphite, sulphuric acid
and turmeric powder, is poured on it. These are then sun- dried. The out- turn
of the dried product varies with the quality and ripeness of the raw tubers and
ranges from 17-25% of the fresh material. The loss in weight due to full
polishing is ~ 5-8% and half polishing ~. 2-3%. Cured and finished turmeric is
brittle and has a shining yellow colour (Venkateswaran, 210; Philip &
Sethumadhavan in Nair et al, 198).
History of turmeric (Curcuma
longa), its use, species diversity, variability, method of propagation,
chemical constituents etc. have been presented. (Sasikumar, B., Indian
Spices, 33(1), 2, 1996).
Turmeric (Curcuma
longd) is an important spice crop with many diversified uses. Processing of
turmeric rhizomes freshly dug out of the earth is essential both for the development
of an attractive colour, characteristic aroma and good commercial value.
Processing technology adopted in Duggirala area of Guntur district has been
presented with a view to explore the possibilities for mechanising and improving
the processing techniques. Various unit operations involved in turmeric
processing presently carried out manually
can be mechanized by adopting related processing (Satyanarayana, V.V.
and Sukumaran, C.R.; Andhra Agricultural Journal, 46(3&4),
229, 1999).
Turmeric is a major constituent of condiments and
curry powders; it is very important to Indian cuisine. It is used in pickle as
a preservative, and as a colouring matter in dairy products like butter,
cheese, and in bakery products. In the West, it is commonly used to add colour
to mustards used for garnishing popular snacks. In India, it is considered a
safe and economical colour additive to Vanaspati (hydrogenated oil), being
cheaper and harmless, and not interfering in
the test for detecting adulteration of vanaspati with the ghee.
Besides, it is being heat and storage
stable and adds to shelf- life of vanaspati (Smith, Rep Trop Prod Inst, G165,
1982, 8; Kapur et al, Indian J
Technol, 1963, 1, 292).